« People buy and drink tea for certain qualities. If those qualities are not there, then they may not buy the tea. »

Colin Orians, professor at the Department of Biology at the Tufts University, Massachusetts, USA

Introduction:

Tea is worldwide the second most consumed beverage after water. People have been drinking it for centuries and some spend high amounts of money to acquire tea leaves, above all the quality ones.
After being widespread in China from the 6th century on, tea drinking became popular in Japan as well, and tea leaves are said to have been brewed by different Indian tribes at the times of Ancient India already, from the 12th century on for sure. But large-scale production of tea in India, and more precisely in the Assam region located in the Northeast, south of the eastern Himalayas, began during the first half of the 19th century only, under the influence of the British Empire.
The tea industry plays a crucial role in India’s Economy: the country is the world's second most important tea exporter after China, generating 1197,18 million kgs a year [1]. Nowadays social and environmental factors affect the tea’s quality and reputation. Indeed, working and living conditions on tea plantations being revealed, customers are more aware of exploitation and abuses. Also, the current challenges due to climate change affect deeply Assam's tea plantations and the region's economy.

A quick overview of Assam's beginnings:
Assam's tea history began in 1823, when Robert Bruce is said to have discovered wild tea plants in upper Brahmaputra Valley. China and Assam are the only places on Earth where native tea plants exist (Camelia Sinesis var. Assamica is the Assam variety) [2]. After having told his brother Charles Alexander about it, the latter started tea plantations in 1835, charged by the British East India Company [3]. One year later, his tea was said to be of good quality by Delhi's tea experts [4]. In 1839, the public sale of Assam tea in the United Kingdom started. From then on China lost of its primacy, mainly because of Assam tea being one of the world's finest ones.

1. Climate change affects Assam's finest tea plantations

Tea plantations are very sensitive to climate variations and require stable water supply and temperatures, enough soil fertility, otherwise pest and disease are most likely to spread and plants not able to grow.
For a very long time Assam was known for its optimal growing conditions generating a strong flavor, creamy and many-virtues-containing tea, so tea plantations had been proliferating for more than a century.

1.1. Change of the climate: observations

1.1.1. Environmental changes
Over the last nine decades a rise of Assam's minimum temperature by 0,062 to 1,5°C [5] has been observed, increasing it to 19,5 °C as an average. At the same time, rainfall decreased by more than a fifth which means a loss of 200 mm of the average rainfall in a year [6]. And cloudy days are more frequent. This causes a lack of sunshine affecting the plants growth especially during the monsoon season. It also causes a very humid climate that supports the spread of pests.
What is even more problematic is the disruption of the Earth's climate system. In fact, the changes in the rainfall pattern (e.g. heavier sudden showers, longer dry periods) damage the plants and cause an uneven natural irrigation. So the harvest pattern is affected as well. The violent climate conditions also lead to soil erosion and lessened soil fertility, thus new suitable land has to be found for tea plantations.

1.1.2. Economical consequences
Between 2007 and 2009 a noteworthy decline in production has been taking place in Assam, falling down from 512,000 tonnes in 2007 to 445,000 tonnes in 2009 [7], although the tea cultivation area increased during the same period. Between 2012 and 2013 instead, an increase of production has been noticed, rising from 590,120 [8] to 618,140 tonnes. But this shouldn't be taken for granted.
Furthermore, the costs for the treatments against the pests and those for the adaptation measures in matters of irrigation and clearance of new, suitable land are very high, both economically and ecologically. These investments are often made at the expense of the labourers.

1.2. Diseases
“There has been a weird resurgence of pests that had been dormant for decades” said Prabhat Bezboruah, a tea grower in Assam. The production's falling down can certainly be linked to the climate change: its consequences are increasingly visible. It can also be linked to the spread of deseases because of the humid climate of recent years, but not only. In fact, diseases became also more frequent as pesticides have been used too much during the last decades, what changed the genes of the pests and made them more resistant.

1.2.1. Helopeltis Theivora and Oligunychus coffeae Nietner, two pests of Assam
The Helopeltis Theivora, also called Tea Mosquito Bug, is the most destructive tea pest. It sucks the sap from the plants and while doing that injects its toxic saliva what alters the taste of the tea made out of the plants' leaves. It thus deeply affects the tea's export value by reducing the quality and causes a crop loss between 11 and 100% [9].
So does the Red Spider Mite which makes the mature leaves becoming brown thus reducing tea plants productivity. A research paper about the seasonal incidence of Red Spider Mite [10] has revealed that the Oligunychus coffeae Nietner is mostly active during the summer months, but that humidity has only a light impact on their proliferation (contrary to the Tea Mosquito Mug), and that the sudden, heavy rainfall of recent decades kills them. The rise of the minimum temperature instead, is a major cause of the Red Spider Mite's proliferation.

1.2.2. The Helopeltis Theivora genes study
“In the past, apparent management of the Helopeltis Theivora was possible by applying single systemic pesticides. But for the last few years its management even for short-term period needed multiple pesticides in cocktail at frequent interval. This high exposure of pesticides for prolonged period may make Helopeltis Theivora increasingly resistant to chemicals” [11].
The Assam region producing 52,88% [12] of India's tea makes its two kinds of black tea (Orthodox and CTC) out of one and the same bush: the Camelia Sinesis var. Assamica. The potential proliferation of Helopeltis Theivora makes the mono-crop tea plantations even more vulnerable.

1.3. Which adaptation measures should be taken?
From the beginning on, tea planters have focused on Assam's native plant and made of the “Tippy Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe Orthodox Assam” one of the most precious and thus expensive teas of the world [13]. But through climate change and the spread of pests, these bushes have been growing leaves of altered taste for several years. Thus, research needs to be done and measures have to be taken in order to face these ecological problems and reduce their negative economical impact.

1.3.1. Diversity
The mono-crop tea growing system is problematic as it makes the tea bushes and plantation economies more vulnerable. Pests spread way faster and can cause a 100% loss. It also creates dependency. In fact, the Camelia Sinesis var. Assamica is used to a special weather pattern composed of regular soft rainfall (generating a sufficient water supply) and enough sunshine: “Assam's tea gardens once benefited from the right balance between rainfall and sunlight” [14]. However, the recent climate changes stop the bushes from growing well, the productivity falls, costs rise on the one hand and prices fall because of the declining quality on the other hand. This creates another major problem within the industry: tea bushes are planted for 60 years, it is a long-term investment, and if people know that this won't be profitable, they will not do it anymore.
To prevent these problems, first, more research has to be done in order to create tea hybrids which would be adapted to the way climate changes. A major concern about research are its high costs and the uncertainties related to the evolution of the climate during the coming years. Will climate stability come back, and if it does, what will it look like? Some research has already been done by the Tocklai Tea Research Institute located in Kolkota, India. Researchers worked so far on two Assam clones which would be drought-resistant and water-logging while conserving the characteristic flavor.
Furthermore, some tea growers already moved into the production of white and green tea. The production of the latter was in decline from the 1960's on, nearly forgotten at the very beginning of the 21st century, but increased again from 2004 on [15]. The tea economy thus keeps going, is supported by the high value of some green and white varieties, and jobs could be maintained. A major concern: the exquisite traditional black Assam variety is thus left behind.
Finally, as the soil in the tea-growing areas become poor, tea planters could change to other crops able to survive there, or add other crops to their tea production. This would be beneficial in several ways. In fact, other tree crops like rubber would protect the tea plants. And food crops would make food available for the owner and the employees, the surplus could be sold.

1.3.2. Irrigation
As Professor Arup Kumar Sarma said, “the change in precipitation, particularly, will be critical”. And Manish Bagaria, a tea estate owner in Dibrugarh, Northern Assam, noticed that “earlier we had evenly spread rainfall. Now […] we get a lot of rainfall in one particular month or a couple of months.” This is problematic for the soil which erodes, but results in a lack of water as well. Therefore, the research on drought-resistant and water-logging tea plants. But other investments have to be made as well.
First of all, regulating irrigation by creating an artificial system helps to have “the right amount of water at the right time” [16], what is fundamental for the plants to grow well. In the past, Assam has been facing several challenges in the matter of irrigation. In fact, many schemes were incomplete and delayed, decisions taken without the consent of locals affected by the implementation, and there was only a small financial support by the central government of India and not enough funds allocated to this domain by the state governing authority of Assam. This led to present irrigation systems that are “not enough for agriculture sector” although water resources are abundant in Assam [17]. Also, they are in bad condition and quite old. Eventually the government of Assam has planned to make investments and to “collect Irrigation Services charges from the farmers for utilization of irrigation water” [18] in order to fund them. But those investments are very high and require farmer's awareness. In fact, studies have shown that the utilization rate of irrigation facilities (utilized irrigation potential/created irrigation potential) has been very low from 1995 on, falling from 24% for the period 1995-2000 to only 19% between 2000-2003 [19]. This utilization rate has to rise.
Adaptive measures are usually different irrigation systems like sprinklers and drip systems, but ways to conserve the surplus rain water of the wet seasons should also be looked for. Increasing the vegetation cover for example would create more water bodies as “green plants retain the moisture in the soil”. Moreover, it is ecologically friendly as “you can not do any damage if you plant trees”, as said Sandip Ghosh, secretary of the Assam branch of the Indian Tea Association.

1.3.3. Locally appropriate solutions
With the expansion of empires, people traveling, migrating and making commerce, knowledge and know-hows have been exported, sometimes imposed or accepted after people have been convinced. During the last centuries, people paid only little attention if the changes implied by an application of new knowledge are adapted to the area they live in or not, and if they could be a lasting solution. A former mistake which should not be made in the context of tea plantations adaptation to climate change. In fact, Camelia Sinesis var. Assamica is deeply fixed into its biotope and has to be studied in Assam's changing climate. The adaptation measures have to be created regarding the region's natural and financial resources, and considering what has already been made in the past (e.g. irrigation systems). The "forgotten" workers of tea plantations often have deep knowledge about the tea bushes and their problems as they deal with them on a daily basis. Not through studies, but simply through observation. Taking their practical experience into account could be beneficial in researchers' work about adaptation measures.
An initial research has already been done. It tests the different tea varieties under elevated carbon dioxide and temperature conditions in order to show the impact of climate change, determine the bushes reactions and natural adaptation, so that human-made adaptation measures can be found out and adaptation strategies be developed.
Regarding the irrigation, in order to prevent a mass die-off of the tea bushes, tea planters have to know when the bushes have to be irrigated. It's the same for the moment the leaves have to be picked, as said Bob Heiss, “the flavor can change from morning to afternoon because of shifts in the concentration of amino acids and chemistry. It's a really micro kind of thing”.
The change of the climate disturbs the knowledge people had so far. The increase of temperature makes the new leaves sprout too early for example, but the morning frosts then damage them. Tea planters, labourers and scientists thus have to acquire their empirical knowledge from the beginning on once again.

2. Assam's social issues lower the tea's perceived quality

Tea is a typical example of a crop where price is hugely influenced by quality, so the changes observed during the last decades are more than worrisome for the region's economy. As mentioned in the first section, through climate change and several pests, the quality of Assam tea has been lowering because of the change in taste and the loss of certain healthy components [20] as well.
But nowadays, in addition to that, other factors are taken into account when it comes to deal with the value of a product, of which the most important is certainly the way something is produced, so labourers' working but also living conditions.

2.1. India's Plantation Labour Act of 1951

2.1.1. The Act...
Under the 1951's Act, tea planters, so the employers, are obliged to “provide social services for workers and their families”. This means that the latter can live within the estate without paying something, and that they have access to all the basic facilities such as clear drinking water, medical services and education for example. A village within the estate is supposed to be created.
Furthermore, the provisions of the Act insure that the plantations are registered. Chief inspectors of the state government can thus control if the basic facilities are provided for workers. Regulation in matters of working time are mentioned as well: no adult should work more than 48 hours a week and has the right to have one day off every seven days. And children shall not be employed more than 27 hours a week.

2.1.2. ... isn't implemented
Assam's 950 tea estates employ 20% of the total population of the state of Assam, that's a labour force of 795,850 individuals for the whole tea production process [21]. As tea plants require human care, the employees couldn't be replaced by machines. At Assam's beginnings, the tea companies even had to import labour from other parts of India, luring them with the promise for good wages and decent living conditions [22].
But reports show that the actual situation of labour in Assam's tea plantations is far from what has been promised, both by the tea planters and by the Plantation Labour Act of India: “one-third of the tea estates in Assam fail to provide the workers with even the basic necessities” [23].

2.2. The tea estate labourers' working and living conditions influence the actual quality of the tea and its perceived value

2.2.1. Improper working and living conditions jeopardize labourers' health and thus their ability to work
The impact of working conditions is gender-related since the performed tasks are not the same. If women are mainly in charge of plucking the tea leaves, men often spray pesticides. Alongside the already harsh tea plucking, climate change through the rise of minimum temperature, humid air and the more than ever burning sun exhausts women even more. Men instead suffer the repercussions of spraying pesticides without any protection. Child labour is also still common in the tea plantations of Assam.
Not only the labourers' working conditions but also their living conditions are problematic. First of all, “the tea workers are found to be paid wages much below the minimum wages for agricultural workers” [24]. 91 pence (1,04€) a day on the Nahorani tea estate [25] for example, where tea sold by the world's best-selling brands like Tetley is grown. Employees can hardly afford what is sold in the shops located on the estates and prefer saving their low income for festivals like durga puja for example, which are deeply anchored into their traditions and beliefs [26]. What's even more striking is that many families do not have enough money in order to sustain their children, so the latter are often sold into slavery. Girls mainly as maids or into prostitution [27]. Furthermore, the housing conditions are poor: roofs are broken or not rainproof anymore, running water has most of the time to be collected outdoors, and it is not potable on every estate. “Other basic facilities such as electricity are not provided” [28]. Sanitation conditions are poor too, thus labourers get sick easily and illnesses spread. Medical services should be granted i.e. small but well-equipped hospitals, pharmacies, doctors, and pills should be given to the sick people. Reality is different. Employees of most of the estates have to travel far, even in case of emergency, to get basic health care. Sometimes, the nearest town is several hours away.

2.2.2. Some tea estate owners still maintain poor levels of awareness and knowledge
Recreational facilities, childcare facilities and education are three other services which are supposed to be granted by the Plantation Labour Act. Reality shows that they are not, most of the time. On the Kakojan, the Rajoi and the Diha Tea Estate, not even a primary school is set up. Children thus have to go to the nearby villages if they want to addend school. Because of this and their parents earning low wages, many children end up being employed as labour as well [29]. The lack of education is high. However, the situation varies a lot from one estate to another. Those providing good education enable children to emancipate. Some of them can become experts and researchers in tea for example, since their families have been working on the estate for generations.
Nevertheless, the lack of education of most of the people working on the plantations and the inability for parents with a low wage to pay higher education for their children implies that generations of cheap workers are kept on the same estate without ever having the possibility to create their own life. This goes in line with the fact that “no health or general awareness programmes have been organized […] to create awareness amongst the workers.” [30]. Let's take the example of women : it has been shown that many women working on tea plantations have anemia. Most of them don't know about that. So they can't adopt a proper diet to improve their health and physical condition either. This lack of awareness and know how leads then to further problems during pregnancy and post-pregnancy period.
What's more, tea estate labourers rarely receive a proper education about the tea plants or the tea fabrication process. Worse, “most of the new buyers [of tea plantations] were not aware of tea plantation and lack of knowledge of the trade and desire to make fast money” [31]. Thus, the plants don't reach the level of productivity and quality they could, what is actually contrary to the desire of making profit. A wrong irrigation schedule can cause a mass die-off of tea bushes for example, and as said the tea expert Bob Heiss about the tea leaf picking schedule : “the flavor can change from morning to afternoon because of shifts in the concentration of amino acids and chemistry. It's a really micro kind of thing”. Quality relies on knowledge.

2.2.3. Increased vulnerability due to climate change
Due to climate change, the loss of tea plants and the high price of adaptation measures, more and more estates are not efficient enough.
So workers are dismissed, and unemployment increases. Workers are forced to move into town in order to find a job. Another problem is that those children who had access to education within their estate have to leave the school, and it has been shown that access to school for former tea plantation workers' children is more difficult.
Furthermore, regular workers tend to be re-employed on short term. As such, employers are not obliged to grant them the social services mentioned by the Plantation Labour Act of 1951. Part-time child labour increases too [32], profitable both for the plantation owner and the parents as they represent cheap labour and an increase of revenue respectively.
India is also a country where women are still discriminated and not respected as a person with an identity of her own. “There are misconceptions that they are not economically contributors” [33]. Girls for example leave school earlier than boys in order to work or get married, women are paid less, and their health is not taken into account. In economically difficult situations, increasing the female workforce is thus seen as opportune.
Finally, as far as the workers' revenue is concerned, the legal minimum is 169 Indian rupees (1,58€) a day [34]. A few years ago, the estates already said that they can not afford it, so a low revenue like Rs. 94 (0,88€) a day is considered as "normal". The increasing costs due to climate change adaptation might lower the workers' income even more, owners being even more reluctant to pay what is due. A vicious circle which would push more and more parents to sell their children for example or at least to make them work as well. A developmental step backward risks to take place.

Conclusion:

Currently, Assam's tea industry faces a severe crisis driven by multiple problems influencing the tea's quality and value, thus jeopardizing the region's economy.
From labour and social issues through increased pest infestations to the rising impact of climate change, one of the world's finest teas looses both its characteristics (taste, health benefits) and its reputation.
Will the vicious circle continue indefinitely or could the current issues be a trigger for improvement ? On one hand, we have ecological challenges and high-costly adaptation measures, some conservative states of mind due to a lack of knowledge and the desire for making high profits without taking into account people's well-being. On the other hand, we have an increased number of persons dealing with climate change through research, the identification of some locally adapted adaptation measures and a rising number of investigations into other people's living and working conditions as the Western World becomes aware of the negative effects of globalization. Tea regions all over the world are affected by similar ecological, social and/or economical problems. Thus, people's concern for these issues might increase over time and lead to deeper knowledge. A primary driving force for positive development.

This research report doesn't deal with the negative impact on the environment and global warming of the tea plantations themselves (e.g. clearing new suitable land for mono-crop tea plantations, deforestation, gases released into the atmosphere). These issues should be taken into account when identifying measures to face global warming and trying to counter negative economical consequences.

As has been shown above, the future of Assam's tea industry relies on a healthy ecosystems and valorized workforce. Nowadays problems could serve as catalysts for sustainable development and thus make the region's economy stronger and more competitive.

Index :

Introduction
A quick overview of Assam's beginnings

1. Climate change affects Assam's finest tea plantations
1.1 Change of the climate: observations
1.1.1. Environmental changes
1.1.2. Economical consequences
1.2 Diseases
1.2.1. Helopeltis Theivora and Oligunychus coffeae Nietner, two pests of Assam
1.2.2 .The Helopeltis Theivora genes study
1.3 Which adaptation measures should be taken ?
1.3.1. Diversity
1.3.2. Irrigation
1.3.3. Locally appropriate solutions

2. Assam's social issues lower the tea's perceived quality
2.1. India's Plantation Labour Act of 1951
2.1.1. The Act...
2.1.2. ...isn't implemented
2.2. The tea estate labourers' working and living conditions influence the actual quality of the tea and its perceived value
2.2.1. Improper working and living conditions jeopardize labourers' health and thus their ability to work
2.2.2. Tea estate owners maintain poor levels of awareness and knowledge
2.2.3. Increased vulnerability due to climate change

Conclusion

[1] 1197,18 M.Kgs in 2014-2015, the 541,73 M.Kgs of 2014 being sold for 126.88 roupees per kg. Indian Tea Board Statistics.

[2] Pranjal K Phukan (2015), “The Industry of Assam: an analysis”

[3] “English company formed for the exploitation of trade with East and Southeast Asia and India incorporated in 1600. […] The company gradually lost both commercial and political control. Its commercial monopoly was broken in 1813, and from 1834 it was merely a managing agency for the British government of India.”. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

[4] Taknet, D.K. (2003). Siddharth Mukherjee, ed. “The heritage of Indian tea: the past, the present, and the road ahead.”. Indian Institute of Marwari Entrepreneurship.

[5] Study by Toklai, Tea Research Association mentioned in “The Economic Times” by Sutanuka Ghosal.

[6] Amarjyoti Borah for “The Guardian”. 26.12.2010.

[7] Amarjyoti Borah for “The Guardian”. 26.12.2010.

[8] Sushanta Talukdar for “The Hindu”, using the Tea Board statistics. 02.02.2014.

[9] Jiten Mech, Mantu Bhuyan, Brijmohan Singh Bhau, Sangita Borthakur, Pranab Ram Bhattacharyya (2014), “Morphological and genetic diversity studies among populations of tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora from Assam, India.”.

[10] Salma Mazid , R.C.Rajkhowa and J.C.Kalita (2015),“Seasonal incidence of red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae Nietner on tea plantation in Assam”.

[11] Jiten Mech, Mantu Bhuyan, Brijmohan Singh Bhau, Sangita Borthakur, Pranab Ram Bhattacharyya (2014), “Morphological and genetic diversity studies among populations of tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora from Assam, India.”.

[12] Indian Tea Association.

[13] “Tippy Golden Flowery Orange Pekoe Orthodox Assam” consisting of the fine golden tips next to the bush's bud. Shona Patel. Article on Tea Buddy blog. 19.12.2011.

[14] Professor Arup Kumar Sarma made a research on Assam's tea gardens and climate change.

[15] Saji M Kadavil (2007), “Indian tea Research”.

[16] Government of Assam, Department of Irrigation http://irrigassam.nic.in/ .

[17] Phanindra Goyari (2008), “Scarcity in the midst of plenty: irrigation development for water abundant Assam”.

[18] Government of Assam, Department of Irrigation http://irrigassam.nic.in/ .

[19] Data from the Office, Chief Engineer, Irrigation Department, Government of Assam.

[20] “early findings show that major health compounds that account for the desirable bitter and sweet taste of tea and for some of its antioxidant properties are reduced in tea leaves harvest around the monsoon time meanwhile some other chemicals that don't account for health benefits are boosted. Another concerning issue is that tea harvest in the wet seasons requires more drying and more processing – which could also reduce their healthy compounds.” Selena Ahmes, Food Systems researcher at Montanta State University.

[21] Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”.

[22] Mridusmita Duara and Sambit Mallick (2015), “Tea industry in Assam (India): Issues of Migration and Gender Discrimination”.

[23] Mridusmita Duara and Sambit Mallick (2015), “Tea industry in Assam (India): Issues of Migration and Gender Discrimination”.

[24] Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”.

[25] The Guardian. Guardian Investigations. “Assam's modern slaves: the real price of a cup of Tutley tea”. David Niblock (filmed and directed) and Gethin Chamberlain (reporter). 2013.

[26] Durga being an icon for the Indian independence movement, the durga puja has been one of the largest festivals celebrated in the whole world. Durga is the godess of power and strength for the hindus, and Pujas are prayer rituals. The History & Origin of Durga Puja. https://www.hinduism.about.com .

[27] Tea estate owners let the kidnappers enter on the estates and talk to the girls, tell them lies about a happy and wealthy life in big cities like Delhi or Mumbai. Nobody does something in order to counter that and show that what is told is not true. Thus, the girls are actually lured into servitute and prostitution. Currently over 100,000 girls are missing, of which an estimated 5th was sold into sexual slavery. Source : The Guardian. Guardian Investigations. “Assam's modern slaves: the real price of a cup of Tutley tea”. David Niblock (filmed and directed) and Gethin Chamberlain (reporter). 2013.

[28] Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”.

[29] Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”.

[30] Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”.

[31] Pranjal K Phukan (2015), “The Industry of Assam: an analysis”.

[32] Kaison Chang and Margarita Brattlof (2015), “Socio-economic implications of climate change for tea producing countries”.

[33] Dr. M. Tineshowri Devi (2013), “Women Status in Assam”.

[34] Business and human rights centre. 19.08.2014. https://www.business-humanrights.org/it/ultime-notizie/minimum-wage-violations-perpetuate-modern-day-feudalism-on-assams-tea-plantations/ .

Bibliography:

*1 Indian Tea Board Statistics. http://teaboard.gov.in/ .
*2, 31 Pranjal K Phukan (2015), “The Industry of Assam: an analysis”.
*3 Encyclopaedia Britannica.
*4 Taknet, D.K. (2003). Siddharth Mukherjee, ed. “The heritage of Indian tea: the past, the present, and the road ahead.”. Indian Institute of Marwari Entrepreneurship.
*5 Sutanuka Ghosal for “The Economic Times”, mentioning a study by Toklai, Tea Research Association.
*6, 7 Amarjyoti Borah for “The Guardian”. 26.12.2010. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/dec/26/climate-change-assam-tea .
*8 Sushanta Talukdar for “The Hindu”, using the Tea Board Statistics. 02.02.2014.
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/assams-tea-production-on-a-high/article5644715.ece .
*9, 11 Jiten Mech, Mantu Bhuyan, Brijmohan Singh Bhau, Sangita Borthakur, Pranab Ram Bhattacharyya (2014), “Morphological and genetic diversity studies among populations of tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis theivora from Assam, India.”. Research article published in 'Molecular Biology Reports'.
*10 Salma Mazid , R.C.Rajkhowa and J.C.Kalita (2015),“Seasonal incidence of red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae Nietner on tea plantation in Assam”. Research paper published in PARIPEX, Indian Journal of Research.
*12 Indian Tea Association.
*13 Shona Patel. Article on Tea Buddy blog. 19.12.2011. https://www.teabuddy.wordpress.com .
*14 Professor Arup Kumar Sarma's research on Assam's tea gardens and climate change. Mentioned in "Why climate change is bad news for India Tea producers". 22.03.2014. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26754121 .
*15 Saji M Kadavil (2007), “Indian tea Research”.
*16, 18 Government of Assam, Department of Irrigation. http://irrigassam.nic.in/ .
*17 Phanindra Goyari (2008), “Scarcity in the midst of plenty: irrigation development for water abundant Assam”. Conference papers for the International Water Management Institute.
*19 Data from the Office, Chief Engineer, Irrigation Department, Government of Assam.
*20 Selena Ahmes, Food Systems researcher at Montanta State University.
*21, 24, 28, 29, 30 Archana Bhattacharjee and Lakhya Pratim Nirmolia (2015), “Role of Tea Industry in Rural Development of Assam: Issues and Challenges in respect of Human Recources”. https://www.internationalconference.in/XVI_AIC/TS5C-PDF/7Archana_Bhattacharjee.pdf .
*22, 23 Mridusmita Duara and Sambit Mallick (2015), “Tea industry in Assam (India): Issues of Migration and Gender Discrimination”. Conference paper.
*25, 27 The Guardian. Guardian Investigations. “Assam's modern slaves: the real price of a cup of Tutley tea”. David Niblock (filmed and directed) and Gethin Chamberlain (reporter). 2013.
*26 The History & Origin of Durga Puja. https://www.hinduism.about.com .
*32 Kaison Chang and Margarita Brattlof (2015), “Socio-economic implications of climate change for tea producing countries”. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
*33 Dr. M. Tineshowri Devi (2013), “Women Status in Assam”. Blue Ocean Research Journals. Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research Volume 2, no.1.
*34 Business and human rights centre. 19.08.2014. https://www.business-humanrights.org/it/ultime-notizie/minimum-wage-violations-perpetuate-modern-day-feudalism-on-assams-tea-plantations/ .